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THIS WEEK'S LETTER...
... sees the release of the latest issue of Napoleonica. La Revue, the general theme of which is "War and Administration". This new edition includes articles from Marc Lafon, Thierry Lentz, Thierry Couzin, Jean-Philippe Rey, and Pascal Cyr, as well as two book reviews. Our new painting of the month continues the war theme with The Battle of the Pyramids by Louis François Lejeune, an officer and painter of the Revolutionary, Consulate and Imperial periods. The painting is currently on display as part of the Lejeune retrospective taking place at the Château de Versailles. Moving beyond the wars of the Directory to 1812, we bring you details of the Fondation Napoléon's forthcoming two-day conference on the Russian campaign, registration for which will open on 15 February. We approach the end of the letter with more on the conspiracy theory that refuses to go away: Jacques Macé, friend and board member of the Fondation Napoléon, has brought to our attention a period document that relates to the coffin confusion, and we have decided to pass it on to our readers. 200 years ago takes a look at the Battle of Sultanabad, a Persian victory over Russian forces under Kotlyarevsky, whilst 150 years ago takes a look at the role played by microscopic photography and pigeons during the siege of Paris.
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NAPOLEONICA. LA REVUE
"Issue n° 12: War and Administration"
The subject of war tends to dominate study of the Napoleonic period; whether you agree that this dominance is merited or not, it has to be acknowledged that warfare is a key component of our period of interest. There is, however, always scope for expanding on topics we thought had been done to death. In this war and administration-themed issue of Napoleonica. La Revue (number twelve in the series), we have some prime examples of wide-angle, multi-disciplinary analysis. The first part of Jean-Marc Lafon's study of the Peninsular War draws on archaeological and palaeopathological evidence to throw new light on the conflict. Turning back to the figure of the emperor, Thierry Lentz analyses the improbable comparison of Napoleon Bonaparte and Adolf Hitler, whilst Bernard Richard looks back on a time when the Saint-Napoléon, held on 15 August, was the French fête nationale. There are also articles from Thierry Couzin ("La Grande Nation à l'épreuve des grandes nations lors de l'expansion napoléonienne"), Jean-Philippe Rey ("La centralisation napoléonienne au révélateur lyonnais"), and Pascal Cyr ("Davout, l'organisateur véritable de l'armée de 1815"), as well as book reviews by Fondation Napoléon director Thierry Lentz and Correspondance project manager François Houdecek.
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PAINTING OF THE MONTH
The Battle of the Pyramids, by Louis François Lejeune
By 1806, the date on which this painting was exhibited, the victory of the French army - which on 21 July 1798 saw General Bonaparte triumph over the Mamluks of Mourad Bey on the plains of Giza - had already entered into legend, reproduced and glorified by some of the greatest artists of the period. Lejeune's panoramic and narrative interpretation is in stark contrast to Gros' La Bataille des Pyramides (external link in French), a grandiose work of propaganda constructed around the central figure of Napoleon, the providential hero astride his rearing horse. Lejeune's battle is presented from a wide perspective, making it easier to depict the formations of the armies and presenting the viewer with a clear understanding of the strategy deployed by Bonaparte.
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WHAT'S ON
"1812, la campagne de Russie: Regards croisés sur une guerre européenne", Paris, France
The Fondation Napoléon, in partnership with the Souvenir Napoléonien, the Centre de Recherche en Histoire des Slaves de l'Université Paris I, the Archives Diplomatiques, and the magazine L'Histoire, is organising an international conference on the subject of the Russian campaign of 1812. Entitled "1812, la campagne de Russie: Regards croisés sur une guerre européenne", the conference will feature papers from some of the pre-eminent historians of the Napoleonic period, including Marie-Pierre Rey, Patrice Gueniffey, Michel Kerautret and Jacques Jourquin, as well as François Houdecek, Peter Hicks, Chantal Prévot, Pierre Branda and Thierry Lentz from the Fondation Napoléon. Registration for the event is set to open on 15 February, via napoleon.org.
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"Les guerres de Napoléon. Louis-François Lejeune, général et peintre (1755-1848)", Versailles, France
Louis François Lejeune (1775-1848), soldier, spy, painter, and diplomat in his own time, is a unique character in the history of the Napoleonic period. As an officer, he participated in the key wars of the Revolution and Empire before rising to the rank of général de brigade. This was not enough for him, however: as well as fighting on the frontline, he also painted scenes from the main battles that were waged, producing about a dozen paintings. He also left detailed memoirs recounting his experiences during the Napoleonic campaigns. The exhibition focuses on the life of this fascinating and colourful individual and features not only his drawings and paintings - presented in the artistic context of his own period - but also his own recollections of his military career and his life as a civilian during the empire, the Restoration period and the July Monarchy.
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NAPOLEONIC NEWS
The substitution affair: Napoleon's coffins (period document)
Our friend (and board member of the Fondation Napoléon) Jacques Macé has sent us one or two thoughts on the recent discussions in the French media regarding the Napoleon Bonaparte substitution theory. We have decided to publish them in their entirety here.
In the television programme L'Ombre d'un doute screened on 18 January (Franck Ferrand on France 3), we heard Mr Bruno Roy-Henry elaborate on a number of arguments that have been forwarded on numerous occasions since 1969 regarding the substitution of the body of Napoleon. We also heard his detractors voice their arguments - no less enduring - in favour of the emperor's presence in Les Invalides. Curiously, Roy-Henry did not choose to mention the recent discovery - his own no less - of an extremely interesting document that could throw light, perhaps even resolve, this most shadowy affair. In June 1840, Thiers ordered the Commission de Salubrité to make some recommendations on sanitary measures that should be taken during the exhumation of the body of Napoleon Bonaparte on St Helena. The Commission began by investigating the conditions surrounding the burial. Dr Antommarchi, who died in 1836 but whose memoirs had been published in 1825, described four caskets 'Russian-doll style' (white iron, mahogany, lead, and mahogany). However, the report signed by Bertrand, Montholon and Marchand (and which was probably written by the latter) noted only three: white iron, lead, and mahogany. The Commission, instructed by Thiers, interviewed Marchand, who also described three coffins (white iron, lead, and 18mm mahogany). We shall find out soon enough, the Commission must have thought, moving on to other concerns. On 15 October, during the exhumation of the body, it became apparent that Antommarchi had been right. Perhaps Marchand felt aggrieved that he had completely forgotten the intermediary coffin found between the two metal ones, for a couple of years later he took great care in his account of the burial to describe four caskets. The affair should have ended there, as the Commission itself noted in its report published in the Annales d'Hygiène publique in 1841.
The Commission's report can be found at the BNF and is available online via Gallica. It also features Dr Guillard's report on the exhumation.
You can also read a little-known British account of the exhumation of Napoleon's body by Sir John Henry Lefroy, which above all notes how difficult it was to get down to the sarcophagus (it took nine hours of digging and breaking concrete) and underlines the emotion in Napoleon's companions in exile when they recognised the Emperor. This account was 'unearthed' by Albert Benhamou, author of L'autre Sainte-Hélène. La captivité, la maladie, la mort et les médecins autour de Napoléon, London, Albert Benhamou Publishing, 2010. Sir John Henry Lefroy's letter to his wife on the subject of the exhumation of Napoleon was published in 1895 in Autobiography of General Sir John Henry Lefroy, edited by Lady Lefroy ([1895]) [London : Pardon, pref.], "Printed for Private circulation only", pp. 43-49,
This letter was also edited and published by A. D. Thiessen in the Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 36, (2/1942 ) p. 66.
200 YEARS AGO
Battle of Sultanabad, 13 February 1812
Since the Directory period, France had been interested in Persia. It was not until 1807, however, that Napoleon - intent on countering Britain's interests in India and causing trouble for Russia in the disputed territory to its south - signed the Treaty of Finckenstein and dispatched General Gardane to the Shah's court in Tehran. Tsar Alexander I's ascension to the throne in 1804 had revived Russian interest in the southern Caucasus territory, bringing the country into conflict with Iran, which had designs on the area around the Caspian Sea (modern day Azerbaijan). The war, which broke out in 1804, saw the Persian settlement of Echmiadzin (Vagharshapat, in Armenia) fall to Russian troops. As the Persian commander and son of the shah, Abbas Mirza, battled to modernise his army - making use of French and subsequently British expertise - Russia continued to hold the upper hand. Persia soon found itself caught up in a complex Franco-British rivalry from which no real benefits could be obtained. The Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807 had resulted in a Franco-Russian alliance, and Napoleon's attention had turned away from Persia and back to European matters. The French emperor's reluctance to guarantee Iranian territory in the face of the Russian advance eventually persuaded the shah that his interests would be better served elsewhere. The British representative at the Persian court, Sir Harford Jones, seized his chance and an alliance was agreed and signed on 12 March 1809, resulting in Gardane's dismissal. A number of military officers arrived as part of the British delegation, including Lieutenant Henry Lindsay Bethune, who oversaw the modernisation of the Persian horse artillery, and Major Christie, who commanded the infantry. As rumours of the forthcoming conflict between Russia and France reached Persia, a new offensive was mounted. On 13 February 1812, Persian troops succeeded in routing Russian forces commanded by Pyotr Kotlyarevsky at the Battle of Sultanabad (modern-day Arak). Despite the relatively minor nature of the battle, it was portrayed as a glorious victory for the modernised Persian army over the Russian invader, as can be seen in the large canvas depicting the combat (external link), taken from Abbas Mirza's Ujan residence. Persian joy was to prove short-lived, and Kotlyarevsky defeated Abbas Mirza six months later, at the Battle of Aslanduz on 31 October 1812. The battle was also notable for the death of Major Christie. You can read more about the death of Major Christie on page 198 of the Annual Register for 1813 (external link). Sir Harford Jones' account of his mission to the Persian court can also be found online (external link).
150 YEARS AGO
Microscopic photography and pigeons
The Moniteur Universel, ever aware of the latest technological developments, dedicated space in its edition of 15 February 1862 to the science of microscopic photography:
"Everyone celebrated the successful attempts made in photography to magnify negatives and bring them up to their full size. At the same time, the opposite result has [also] been attempted. Microscopic photography endeavours to reduce negatives to an infinitely small [size] in order to subsequently project them in their normal proportions; this is what was admired at the last exhibition [in 1859]. Monsieur Dagron has developed this industrial art to such an extent that he can encase any masterpiece of art, sculpture or history in a tiny fragment of glass barely five or six millimetres in length.
[...]
This magical discovery, which in times past may have seen its creator condemned as a practitioner of sorcery, is French. Yet in England microscopic photography has been produced [for a while]. However these photographs were placed under [a piece of] glass of four to five centimetres in length, and a microscope was required to view the images. This method was inconvenient and failed to take off. Monsieur Dragon has managed to unite photography and the microscope on a miniature scale, creating a single, small object that can be used in the most delicate items of jewellery. That is most assuredly the merit of his invention, the success of which has been such that despite all his many patents, there have been a good deal of counterfeits.
[...]
The applications of microscopic photography are innumerable. These little fragments of glass can be mounted into rings, jewels, bracelets, broaches, charms, seals, or pencil holders; in short, you can carry discreetly about you the images to which you are most attached, the masterpieces that you appreciate."
Microphotographs had been invented by an Englishman, John B. Dancer, but the means by which they were viewed - a separate microscope - proved prohibitively expensive. Prudent René-Patrice Dagron succeeded in taking Dancer's technology and attaching the miniature negatives to a modified viewing lens. The resulting device, known as a Stanhope (named after the third Earl of Stanhope, who invented the original lens), proved a popular novelty, and won Dagron much acclaim at the 1859 International Exhibition in Paris and the subsequent edition in London in 1862. Dagron's invention was however to prove more useful than a simple novelty manner of carrying around one's favourite portraits or prayers: during the 1870-1871 Franco-Prussian War and the siege of Paris, which saw the capital's lines of communication cut, microfilm versions of dispatches and Parisian newspapers were produced by Dagron (based in Clermont-Ferrand) and flown to and from the free cities in the provinces via carrier pigeon (see Dagron's La poste par pigeons voyageurs : souvenir du siège de Paris : Notice sur le voyage du ballon "Le Niepce" emportant M. Dagron et ses collaborateurs et détails sur la mission qu'ils avaient à remplir, available via the BNF's Gallica service). By the end of the war, it was estimated that Dagron had managed to get 115,000 pigeon-delivered messages into Paris. More details on the Pigeon Post into Paris can be found in J. D. Hayhurst's extremely informative article (external link).
Wishing you an excellent "Napoleonic" week,
Peter Hicks & Hamish Davey Wright
Historians and web-editors
THE NAPOLEON.ORG BULLETIN, N° 614, 10 - 16 FEBRUARY 2012
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© This Napoleon.org weekly bulletin is published by the Fondation Napoléon. Reproduction or all or part of this bulletin is forbidden, without prior agreement of the Fondation Napoléon.
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OPERATION ST HELENA
The Fondation Napoléon and the Souvenir Napoléonien, in association with the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, have announced an international fund-raising campaign to restore and save Napoleon I's residence on the island of St Helena. All the details regarding the campaign as well as donation forms and advice for donating from outside France, can be found on napoleon.org.
FONDATION NAPOLEON ON THE WEB
Each week we offer you a "mystery link" to somewhere on napoleon.org. Click on the link to discover a part of the website you might not have visited before...
MAGAZINE
Press review
- EGO: "Levée en Masse", by Ambrogio A. Caiani
- Update on the renovation of Longwood: first items set to arrive in St Helena
Seen on the web (external links)
- The death of Major Christie, The Annual Register 1813
- Sir Harford Jones' account of his mission to the Persian court, 1807-1811
- La poste par pigeons voyageurs : souvenir du siège de Paris : Notice sur le voyage du ballon "Le Niepce" emportant M. Dagron et ses collaborateurs et détails sur la mission qu'ils avaient à remplir, by Prudent René-Patrice Dagron
- "The Pigeon Post into Paris 1870-1871", by J.D. Hayhurst O.B.E.
EVENTS
On now and coming up
A selection of events taking place now or in the coming weeks, taken from our What's on listings.
Exhibitions
- "Les guerres de Napoléon. Louis-François Lejeune, général et peintre (1755-1848)", Versailles, France [14/02/2012-13/05/2012]
Full details
Conferences
- "1812, la campagne de Russie: Regards croisés sur une guerre européenne", Paris, France [04/04/2012 - 05/04/2012]
Full details
Finishing soon...
- "Charles Dickens at 200", New York, USA [23/09/2011 - 12/02/2012]
Full details
NAPOLEON.ORG
The best of the month:
- Book of the month
- Painting of the month
- Objet d'Art of the month
- Article of the month
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